| Syllabus Home |
| DIPLOMA IN RADIOTHERAPY TECHNOLOGY (TWO YEAR) (FIRST YEAR) |
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| Paper 1 | ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY. |
| Paper 2 | BASICS OF RADIOLOGICAL PHYSICS. |
| Paper 3 | RADIOGRAPHIC PHOTOGRAPHY |
| Paper 1 - ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY |
Suggested number of teaching hours 150 including tutorials.
Knowledge of the normal structure and function of the different parts of the body must be coupled with some idea of the way in which disease arises and extends, so that the technologist can assist in the various procedures used in diagnosis and treatment.
The syllabus gives under the main headings the names of organs and systems to indicate the scope of teaching required. Both in diagnosis and treatment, knowledge of the size and position of an organ is of paramount importance. The level to be aimed at here is difficult to define, but books on surface anatomy are available and only rarely will it be necessary to refer to major works on anatomy, such as Gray and Cunningham.
Under the repeating headings ‘Common terms used in connection with diseases of this system; no detailed list of diseases is required. But an explanation of those terms, which the technologist may encounter in daily work, is necessary.
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| I. | GENERAL ANATOMICAL TERMS. |
| II. | REGIONS OF THE BODY. |
| III. | DESCRIPTIONS OF A TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL. |
| | Cell mitosis, genes, sex cell, ova and spermatozoa, Fertilisation of the ovum. Broad lines of embryonic development. Cell function and differentiation of tissues. |
| IV. | STRUCTURE OF GENERAL TISSUES |
| | Epithelium, simple and complex epithelia, glands, skin. Connective tissue, fibrous tissue, cartilage bone. Haversack stems, blood numbers and types of cells in blood, clotting of blood. Muscle tissue. Involuntary, voluntary and cardiac muscle. Nerve tissue. Bacteria & viruses their nature & appearance, The inflammatory process local tissue reaction, general body reaction, asepsis & antisepsis, ulceration |
| V. | NATURE OF NEOPLASMS |
| | Common benign tumors. Malignant tumors and their dissemination. |
| VI. | BONES, JOINTS AND LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM |
| | General description of bones, their main processes and attachments, including the skull with emphasis on the skull as a whole. Development of bones. Primary and secondary bone centers; diaphysis and epiphysis. Position and function of main muscles and muscle groups, structure and description of main joints. Some common diseases and injuries of bones and joints; Healing of fractures. |
| VII. | THORAX AND ABDOMEN |
| | Structure of thoracic cage, abdominal diaphragm and mediastinum. |
| VIII. | HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. |
| | Structure and function of the heart. Pericardium. Peripheral vascular system, names of main arteries and veins. Circulation. Common terms used in connection with diseases of this system. |
| IX. | RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. |
| | Nasal passages and accessory nasal sinuses. Pharynx and larynx. Trachea, bronchi and lungs. Pleura. Nature and function of respiration. Common terms used in connection with diseases of this system. |
| X. | LYMPHATIC SYSTEM: |
| | Main lymphatic gland groups and lymphatic drainage of various organs. Lymphoid tissue and tonsil. Lymph and tissue fluid. |
| XI. | RETICULO ENDOTHELIAL SYSTEM |
| | Spleen and liver. Bone marrow , extent and nature. Physiology of the red and white blood corpuscles. |
| XII. | ALIMENTARY SYSTEM |
| | Mouth, tongue and teeth. Salivary glands. Pharynx and oesophagus. Stomach. Small and large bowel. Liver and billiary tract. Pancreas. Motility of the alimentary tract. Digestion, absorption and metabolism. Nutrition and dietetics. Common terms used in connection with diseases of this system. |
| XIII. | URINARY TRACT |
| | Kidney, ureters, bladder and urethra. Urine formation and excretion. Common terms used in connection with diseases of the system. |
| XIV. | REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM |
| | Male genital tract, testes, epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate. Female genital tract, uterine tubes. Ovaries, uterus, vagina and vulva. The mammary glands. Menstruation, pregnancy and lactation. Common terms used in connection with diseases of this system. |
| XV. | ENDOCRINE GLANDS |
| | Anatomy and function of pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, thymus, pancreas and gonads as endocrine organs. Common terms used in connection with disease of this system. |
| XVI. | NERVOUS SYSTEM |
| | Brain: main subdivisions and lobes ; ventricular system. Spinal cord. Concept of motor, sensory and reflex pathways. Meninges and cerebrospinal fluid; its circulation. Autonomic nervous system. Common terms used in connection with diseases of this system. |
| XVII. | SPECIAL SENSORY ORGANS |
| | Structure and function of the eye. Structure and function of the ear. Structure and function of the skin. |
| XVIII. | SURFACE MARKINGS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY |
| REFERENCE BOOK |
| 1 | Best and Taylor: The human body – its anatomy and physiology (Chapman and Hall) Blewett and Rackow: Anatomy and Physiology for Radiographers. (Butterworth) |
| 2 | Dean: Basic Anatomy and Physiology for Radiographers (Blackwell) |
| 3 | Fitzgerald: Anatomy – 1600 multiple choice questions (Butterworth) |
| 4 | Hamilton et al : Surface and Radiological anatomy(Heffer) |
| 5 | Johnson and Kennedy: Radiographic skeletal anatomy (Churchill Livingstone) |
| 6 | King and showers: Human anatomy and physiology (Saunders) |
| 7 | Meschan: An atlas of Normal Radiographic Anatomy ( Saunders) |
| 8 | Ross & Wilson : Foundations of anatomy and physiology ( Churchill Living stone) |
| 9 | Sears W.G. and Winwood, R. S. : Anatomy and physiology for nurses and students of Human Biology( Arnold Edward) |
| 10 | Warwick: Gray’s anatomy (Longman) |
| 11 | Whillis: Elementary Anatomy and Physiology (Arnold) |
| PAPER-II: BASICS OF RADIATION PHYSICS |
| This syllabus should be augmented by as much of practical and demonstration classes as possible. Suggested number of minimum teaching hours: 100 |
| I. | APPLIED MATHEMATHECS; |
| | Proportion: Direct proportion and inverse proportion. Inverse square law with relevant examples. Graphic representation of parameters those obey linear and exponential law. Example of linear and semilog plotting. |
| II. | MAIN POWER SUPPLY: |
| | Electric current, Unit, Power. A.C. and D.C. power supplies with examples. Single phase and poly phase power supply, switches, fuses, circuit breakers, earthing etc. Mains voltage drop: causes and remedy. Cables: Low tension, High tension. |
| III. | RECTIFICATION: |
| | Thermionic emission: vacuum diode, variation anode current with anode voltage and filament temperature. Gas filled diode and triode. Principle of rectification. Wave forms of half and full wave current/voltage. Rectifiers: valves, metal rectifiers, semiconductors rectifiers, relative merits and demerits. Semiconductors, diodes |
| IV. | ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION : |
| | Electromagnetic radiation: Electromagnetic spectrum, properties of Electromagnetic radiation. Relationship between energy, frequency, wavelength and velocity e.g. x- rays and gamma rays. Dual nature of radiation. |
| V. | STRUCTURE OF MATTER AND PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS. |
| | Structure of matter, design and layout of x-ray machines. |
| VI. | PROPERTIES OF X- RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS: |
| | General properties of x- rays, velocity, frequency etc, photographic effect, photochemical effect, - discoloration of salts, heating effect, biological effect. Ionization of gases such as air. |
| VII. | SOURCES OF X- RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS: |
| | Elementary idea of origin of radiation. X-ray spectrum, X-rays, X–ray tubes fore use in Radiodiagnosis and Radiotherapy. Physics of X-ray production. Gamma rays radioactive isotopes for use in radiotherapy and Nuclear medicine. |
| VIII. | ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY: |
| | Atomic structure and nuclear energy levels. Discovery of radioactity. Natural radioactivity – radium, thorium, Nature and properties of alpha, beta and gamma rays radioactive series, exponential decay, half life period, decay constant, radioactive equilibrium, artificial radioactivity – examples of radio isotopes I-131, Ir- 192, P-32,Tc.99m. Production of artificial radioactive isotopes. |
| IX. | INTERACTION OF X AND GAMMA RAYS WITH MATTER: |
| | Transmission through matter, attenuation, law of exponential attenuation half value layer, linear attenuation coefficient, Interaction of radiation with matter, classical scattering, (unmodified scattering), Compton scatter , photo electric absorption , pair production. Practice aspects of radiation absorption and transmission through body tissues. |
| X. | MEASUREMENT OF X AND GAMMA RAYS: |
| | Unit of quantity of radiation exposure – definition and application of ‘Roentgen’. Unit of quantity radiation dose – definition and application of ‘Rad’, ‘Gray ‘, and ‘Rem’. Principle and application of ionization chamber and ionization reader unit, film and densitometer. Thermoluminescent dosimeter(TLD). |
| XI. | QUALITY OF X AND GAMMA RADIATION: |
| | Specification and explanation of ‘electron volt’ (eV) , kilo-volt (kV) and half value layer (H.V.L.) as index of penetration power of the radiation. |
| REFERENCE BOOK |
| 1 | Christensen, Curry & Dowdey: An introduction to physics of Diagnostic (Lea & Febiger ) |
| 2 | Hay & Hughis : First year of physics of Radiographers ( Balliere Tindall ) |
| 3 | I.S.R.R.T.: Teachers guide to the Application of physics to Radiation Medicine |
| 4 | Kemp & Oliver: Basics physics in Radiology (Blackwell) |
| 5 | Martin &Harbison: Introduction to Radiation protection (Chapman andHall ) |
| 6 | Oliver: Radiation Physics in Radiology (Blackwell) |
| 7 | Stanton: Basic Medical Radiation physics (Appleton- Century) |
| 8 | Young: Radiological physics (H.K.Lewis) |
| 9 | Massey and Merdith Thr physics of Radiology |
| 10 | Faiz m. Khan. The Physics of Radiation therapy. |
| PAPER III - RADIOGRAPHIC PHOTOGRAPHY AND IMAGING |
Suggested number of teaching hours 90 including tutorials and practical demonstration
This radiographic photography syllabus is intended as a guide to the theory and practical knowledge required by the student. Appreciation and application of all the factors listed below will enable the technologist to produce x-ray films of good quality and diagnostic value. The lectures should be linked with practical demonstrations to illustrate the importance of all that goes to make up correct exposure conditions. For the guidance of teachers, the level to which this subject should be taught is clearly indicated in radiographic photography by Chesney and Chesney (Blackwell scientific Publications).
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| I. | RECORDING OF IMAGES ( PHOTOGRAPHIC ASPECT): |
| | Light sensitive salts of silver. The photographic emulsion; Gelatin as the suspension medium; size of the silver halide grain in relation to sensitivity. A brief outline of the formation of the latent image. Purpose of development, fixing and washing. Chemical development, fixing and washing. |
| II. | X-RAY MATERIALS: |
| | Construction of x –ray film. Base material; Substratum coating; emulsion; anti abrasive super coating; double coating and advantages of double coated film (double sided emulsion). Spectral sensitivity. Storage of unexposed film materials. Main stock. Film in use. Records of film stock.
Types of emulsion, characteristics and control. Screen films; nonscreen (direct exposure) films; dental films. Density. Broad appreciation of the characteristic curves of x-ray emulsions. Contrast; Gamma infinity: exposure latitude; speed; Dmax ; basic fog. Correct exposure; under and over exposure as related to the characteristic curve. |
| III. | INTENSIFYING SCREENS: |
| | Fluorescence; applications of fluorescence to radiography. Construction of intensifying screens; Types of Intensifying Screen, Intensifying factors, relative speeds of intensifying screens. Factors affecting the speed of screens. Unsharpness, relative to the speed of the screens. |
| IV. | X –RAY CASSETTE: |
| | Types of x-ray cassette. Testing a cassette for good screen contact and for light leakage. Identification of cassettes and screens; records necessary for screens and cassettes. General care of cassettes. |
| V. | X-RAY DEVELOPERS: |
| | Basic constituents. Desired characteristics of an x –ray developer. Types of developer for manual processing; automatic processing; rapid theatre processing. Fine grain developer pH. The meaning of pH; its importance in processing. Development. Effects on development of time, temperature, agitation, developer activity. Relation to characteristic curve. Standardisation by time and temperature. Exhaustion of developer, replenishment of developer. Tests for correct replenishment rate. |
| VI. | X-RAY FIXERS: |
| | Basic constituents and functions of fixers. Inclusion of hardening and other agents. Fixing. Factors affecting time of fixing. Exhaustion and regeneration of a fixer. |
| VII. | SILVER RECOVERY: |
| | Methods of silver recovery; economic reasons. |
| VIII. | RINSING, WASHING AND DRYING |
| | Objectives of rinsing and washing; methods employed. Wetting agents. Objectives and methods of drying, factors affecting washing and drying. |
| IX. | PROCESSING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT: |
| | Preparation of solutions, suitable water supply, nature of mixing vessels, preparation of solutions, order of ingredients, importance of stirring.
Manual processing apparatus: Processing units, control of temperature, immersion heater, heating element and thermostat,
water mixer, refrigeration.
Theater processing: Rapid theatre processing, dish and tank units, automatic processing units, uses of stop bath, rinse and wetting agents. After treatment of films – Polaroid materials.
Automatic processing: Basic principles, features of equipment, water supply, control of temperature. Regeneration of solutions; storage of replenishment solutions. Methods of feeding films relative to replenishment rates. Processing of roll films. Advantages and limitations of automatic processing systems. Maintenance and cleaning of equipment, daylight processing. |
| X. | STEP- WEDGE TESTS: |
| | Use of a step-wedge to compare film characteristics, intensifying screens and developers. Tests for developer activity and
replenishment. |
| XI. | X- RAY DARK ROOM: |
| | Size of darkroom. Light – proof entrances; cassette batches. General construction of room to provide light proofing and chemical and radiation protection. Testing radiation safety. Disposition of equipment. Loading–bench design. Ventilation. Darkroom illumination and colour schemes. Testing safety of illumination . Comparison of darkroom for manual and automatic processing systems. Minimum requirements for theatre and other specialised darkrooms. Darkroom procedure. |
| XII. | PROPERTIES OF RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE: |
| | The emerged beam, effect of changes in milliampere seconds, kilovoltage and region examined. The emergent beam related to the densities produced on the characteristic curve.
Contrast: Objective contrast. Subjective contrast. Factors affecting contrast.
Sharpness: Sources of unsharpness. Factors affecting the sharpness of the image.
Exposure factors: Choice of kilovoltage and milliamperage. Variation in exposure factors in accordance with the quality of radiation, distance intensifying screens, film speed, secondary radiation grids, developer and development.
Presentation of the radiograph: Identification of radiographs, including stereo radiographs. Serial radiographs. Mounting dental films. Viewing radiographs.
Accessories: Viewing boxes and illuminators: high – intensity illumination of small areas. Magnifiers. Film identification; lead letters: legends and numerals. Printed labels and inscribing materials. Dental mounts and cutters. Actinic markers. Embossing machines. Documentation and filling of radiographs, Indexing systems: colour coding. |
| XIII. | PHOTOGRAPHIC REQUIREMENTS OF FLUOROGRAPHY: |
| | Fluorescent screen; spectral emission to provide maximum brightness and optimum resolution, Sensitive materials; speed, resolution, colour sensitivity in relation to spectral emission of the screen. Halation and irradiation; anti-halo backing. Darkroom illumination and spectral sensitivity of film. Methods of processing cut and roll film. Film formats. |
| XIV. | FILMLESS RADIOGRAPHY: CR, PACS. |
| REFERENCE BOOK |
| 1 | Chesney & Chesney : Radiographic photography (Blackwell). |
| 2 | Kodak: fundamentals of Radiographic Photography 1,2,3,4,5(Kodak Ltd) |
| 3 | Seeman & Herman: Physical and Photography Principles of Medical Radiography (Wiley) |
